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WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY IN A NUTSHELL?
The investigation of the mind remained the absolute province of philosophy until the nineteenth century. In fact, many of modern psychological issues related to human's behavior can be traced back to China, India and Ancient Greeks, when philosophers such as, Plato and Aristotle tried to explain how people feel, behave and acquire knowledge. Psychology was declared, for the first time, as an independent field only in 1879, with Wundt’s experimental laboratory).
Leading Modern Psychological Schools Include: Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Cognitivist, and Humanism.

  

PSYCHOANALYSIS:

                             Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939), psychoanalysis refers to the theory and application of mind
                           investigation. The theory was conceptualized by the Austrian neurologist, in the 1890th Freud’s main
                           premise was that adult’s personality is shaped, and mostly determined by childhood memories and
                           experiences. He contended that emotional sickening symptoms, such as Hysteria, are rooted in troubling
                           memories-- buried in the unconscious in addition, conflicts and formation of mental disorders are based
                           on specific developmental/ psycho-sexual stage in which the child was in at the time. Each stage is
                           characterized by erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal/sexual instinct. The stages are: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent, and Genital. Furthermore, these unconscious, repressed memories, almost always, have some sexual content and associations. 

 

Specifically, unresolved conflicts between various Mental Structural Constructs may result in neurosis.
For example, conflict between the Id and Ego, may lead to unhealthy personalities to develop. While the Id, which operates solely on the 'pleasure principle', seeks immediate gratification of basic drives, (e.g. sex, aggression); the Ego, which operates on the 'reality principle', acts as a mediator between the need to satisfy the Id's urges and realities’ constrains. For a person to cope with these inner mental conflicts, Defense Mechanisms (e.g. Repression) are developed. However, when defense mechanisms fail to serve the person in adaptive ways, disturbances may develop.

Freud's theory was further elaborated by other psychoanalytic theorists and clinicians. However, all theoretical schools share some basic Freudian's assumptions. Specifically, all recognize the strong influence of unconscious elements on people's psyche, including mental suffering. Among the many Freudian followers are Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan, Jacques Lacan, Margaret Mahler, Otto Kernberg, Erik Erikson, Carl Young, Ainsworth, Wilfred Bion, John Bowlby, Anna Freud, Melanie Klein, and Donald Winnicott.
 

Although it is beyond the scope of this article, it is important to note that each theorist added a remarkable contribution to the psychoanalytic understanding of human's behavior.
Many diverted from the “Classical Freudian Theory" that over stressed sexual drives, as well as, from the premise that adult personality is mostly determined by early childhood experiences and fixations. Neo-Freudians illuminated other critical elements for healthy mental growth. For example, Eriskson studied mental growth later, in adult life.

Psychoanalysis Has Been Criticized For:
Being pseudoscience since it lacks scientific coherence of empirical methodology. While other, well-established branches of science are based on quantitative and experimental research, Psychoanalysis is based mostly on clinical Case Study. This means that none of the Psychoanalytic terms can be empirically tested or refuted. For example, modern research and technology cannot pinpoint any of the mental structures (Id, Ego & Super Ego) Freud referred to. Finally, another major critic is related to the fact that psychoanalysis puts too much emphasis on sexuality, often neglecting other relevant qualities of the human psyche.

BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGTY/ LEARNING PERSPECTIVE
Behavioral Psychology, also known as the Learning Perspective, is a brunch of psychology that became dominant during the early half of the 20th century and eroded thereafter. The theoretical goal of Behaviorism is prediction and control of behavior. It is based on the premise that all things organisms do, both animals and human, are learned behaviors. Furthermore, pure Behaviorism investigates observable behaviors only, avoiding the study of inner processes. This is partly because it is easier to collect and quantify data when conducting research.
The school of Behaviorism intended to create a comprehensive model of stream of behavior- from birth to death. Prominent thinkers in this field are Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner.

                                 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), was a well- known Russian physiologist, who among his much
                               recognition received the Nobel Prize in Physiology in 1904.  Through his work, Pavlov discovered the
                               phenomenon of Classical Conditioning. 

                               Pavlov initially pursued a career in medicine before turning his attention to the fascinating realm of
                               psychology. He is widely recognized for his groundbreaking research on classical conditioning, which
                               has left an indelible mark on the field.
                               Pavlov's theory, often referred to as Pavlovian conditioning, centers around the concept of associative learning. He sought to explore how organisms, including humans, acquire new behaviors and responses through repeated associations between stimuli.

His experiments primarily involved dogs, but the principles he discovered have far-reaching implications for understanding human behavior as well.
 

Classical conditioning, the foundation of Pavlov's theory, involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. In one of his famous experiments, Pavlov observed that dogs naturally salivated when presented with food, an unconditioned stimulus. However, through repeated pairings of a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, with the food, the dogs eventually began to associate the bell with the arrival of food.

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As a result, they started salivating at the sound of the bell alone, even in the absence of the food. This conditioned response demonstrated the formation of a new association between the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.

Pavlov's research on classical conditioning shed light on the underlying mechanisms of learning and provided a framework to understand how environmental stimuli can shape our behaviors and responses. This theory has implications not only in psychology but also in various fields, including education, marketing, and therapy.

                               

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                                  John B. Watson (1878- 1958), was an American psychologist, who is considered the Father of
                                Modern Behaviorism. He argued that psychology should be the science of observable behavior and
                                rejected Psychoanalytic Introspection as a form of mind investigation. Inspired by Pavlov's work, and
                                in line with his views, Watson demonstrated techniques of studying reactions to the environment,
                                utilizing objective and scientific methods.
                                "Psychology as the behaviorist views, it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science                                   (1913)".One of Watson's famous, yet controversial experiments were the study of: "Little Albert". He conditioned a small child to fear a white rat through repeatedly pairing it with a loud noise. Later, this fear was generalized to other white, furry objects.

                                 B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), was an influential figure in defining Radical Behaviorism. His school was
                               also named: Experimental Analysis of Behavior/ EAB. He is one of the well-known behavioral
                               scientists, whose work contributed immensely to Experimental Psychology. He is best acknowledged
                               for his theory of Operant Conditioning and the invention of the ‘Skinner Box'. Skinner proved a rat
                               learned to get food by pressing a lever—thus operating of the environment. In contrast to Classical
                               Conditioning, which is Learning by Association, in Operant Conditioning, the organism learns through
                               acting / operating on the environment.

Criticisms on the Behavioral School:
There are several main critics: Considering the multi-dimensional layers of human’s psyche, Radical Behaviorism often seems to be unidimensional and too simplistic. It tends to neglect more complex processes such as: free will, genetic influences, moods, thoughts, and feelings. As such, strict Behaviorism does not account for all types of learning. For example, learning that occurs without the use of reinforcements or/and punishments. Finally, since many of the Behaviorist's findings are based on animal research, many do not apply to human behavior.
 

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY:
In the early 50th, the intellectual landscape began to change dramatically and gave rise to modern scientific research of cognition. Behaviorism was largely eclipsed because of the Cognitive Revolution. Cognitive Psychology refers to the process of acquiring knowledge (in Latin: cognoscere means: “to know”). It incorporates related disciplines like philosophy, neuroscience, computer science, anthropology, and linguistics into the understanding of human behavior and pathology. It aims towards understanding the way people solve problems, learn, speak, socialize with others, remember, and perceive.

It is fundamentally and radically different from both Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis: In contrast to Behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors, Cognitive Psychology is concerned with internal mental states.
And, in contrast to Psychoanalysis, which relies heavily on subjective methods (e.g. Introspection), Cognitive Psychology uses empirical, measurable research methods to study mental processes.
The school of Cognitive Psychology is based on quantitative and scientific methodology. For example, many cognitive researchers use the: “computer- mind” analogy to explain how the human’s mind operates. It is argued that the mind stores, processes and retrieves information in a similar manner to a computer. Others emphasize that one's emotion at a given time depends on her interpretation of the situation (for more info see: Cognitive- Appraisal Theory).
Among the many marked Cognitive Psychologists, who departure from the prevalent Psychoanalytic and Behaviorist schools in the first half of the 20th century were: Aaron Beck, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Albert Bandura & Noam Chomsky.

                                  Aaron Beck (Born 1921), is regarded as the Father of Cognitive Therapy. Initially, he focused on
                                depression and conceptualized it through Mental Schemas. Beck believed that depressive schemas
                                are mental structures built early in childhood/adolescents because of a trauma (e.g. when a child
                                loss its parent). These schemas may remain dormant for years, until the individual encounters
                                situations that resemble the original ones, which then awakens it. Moreover, Beck conceptualized the
                                term: Cognitive Triad of depressive schemas.
                                It refers to negative beliefs about: The self, future, and the world. Thus, a depressive patient might
                                feel that he is worthless, his future is hopeless, and the world is unfair. A concrete example of the Depressive Cognitive. Triad would be: “I am worthless, I am not going to get anywhere, and my future seems shady".
Some common logical errors Beck emphasized include:

•   Selective abstraction- when conclusions are based on some but not all evidence.

•   Arbitrary inferences- when one draws a specific conclusion without supporting evidence, or even in the face of
     contradictory one.

•   Minimization of positives life evens & Magnification of negative qualities.

•   Overgeneralization- is the application of a general rule based on a few isolated incidents.

•   Personalization- is attributing external events onto oneself without evidence of a causal connection.

•   Dichotomous thinking-is categorizing experiences into one of two extremes good or bad.

Noam Chomsky (born 1928), a key cognitive thinker in the subfield of psycho-linguistic, who has had profound implications for modern psychology. In many ways, he helped start the Cognitive Revolution of Psychology, by formulating the theory of Generative Grammar. Chomsky investigated the development of innate structures for syntax, that is- the human ability for creative, organized, coherent, adaptive way of combining words and phrases into intelligible utterances. His Nativist Approach posits Innate/biological Universal Grammar roles and ability for Language Acquisition. He claimed that humans are genetically pre-programmed to learn language. For example, Cooing, which appears at about 6 months or so, is used by Infants all around the world, including congenitally deaf babies.
This approach, which incorporates biological aspects, is seen by many as a direct critic to the established Behaviorist Theories of the time. Through his review of: B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, he challenged the behaviorist’s view of defining language as a learned behavior.

                                Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934), known for his theory of cognitive development. Vygotsky's
                              emphasized the role of social and cultural factors in the family and child's milieu. He believed that
                              universal internal cognitive structures or schemas are built first within the child, and then are
                              affected by her surroundings. "Scaffolding”, a Vygotsky's term, refers to the assistance adults give
                              children to help them comprehend the world. In this context, language is often seen as primarily
                              social. Thus, a child's language and cognitive processes are immensely related to her social
                              relationships and culture. Scaffolding is often used in modern educational systems.

 

 

                               Albert Bandura (born 1925), considered personality to be an interaction between three
                             components: the environment, behavior, and one’s psychological processes (one’s ability to store
                             images in mind and language). He developed the Social Learning Theory which is viewed as a bridge
                             between Behavioral and Cognitive theories. He claimed that although behavioral practice and
                             reinforcement are important, they are not necessary. That is, there are ample behaviors that do not
                             require reinforcement or conditioning. In addition, Bandura argued that learning can take place via
                             imitation, observation, and modeling. It is possible to learn a given behavior merely by watching a model perform it. Bandura believed in “Reciprocal Determinism” --the world and a person’s behavior cause each other. For example, Aggressive thoughts may result in aggressive behavior, which in turn, may influence causing others to have aggressive thoughts.
 

HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY-THE "THIRD FORCE" OF PSYCHOLOGY

During the 1950th, Humanistic Psychology began to rise, as a reaction to Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism, which flourished at the time. Humanistic Psychology is the: "Third Force" of Psychology. The first and second forces are Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis respectively.

While both Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis are Deterministic Approaches, the Humanistic branch added another, more holistic and optimistic dimension to human behavior: In Contrast to Psychoanalysis which focused on unconscious motivations to determine personality, and in contrast to Behaviorism which focused on learning to determine human's behavior and personality, Humanistic thinkers focused on individual’s potential for personal growth.
The fundamental premise of Humanistic Psychology is that people are innately good. Mental disorders and problems are some deviations from this natural tendency of goodness. This approach made it more acceptable for healthy individuals to explore their abilities and reach their maximum potential. And by doing so, it removed some of the stigma attached to therapy in general. Leading Intellectual Thinkers of the Humanistic Approach Are:

                                  Abraham Maslow (1908- 1970), was one of the founder figures in the 1950th, who shifted the
                                focus from mental symptomology and sickness toward positive sides of mental health. He was
                                intrigued by human potential, seeking peak experiences that improved mental health. Specifically, he
                                was interested in Self-Actualization, which is the process of developing and achieving one's potential.

                                Human potential was conceptualized by Maslow in his theory of: Hierarchy of Needs. It is often
                                displayed as a pyramid, where the lowest levels of the pyramid include basic needs. Examples are:
                                Needs for food, water, safety and sleep. As lower-level needs are met, one goes up the pyramid and
                                more complex psychological and social needs become the person's target. Examples are: Needs for belongingness, love and friendship. Finally, the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment are located at the top of the pyramid.

                                 Carl Rogers (1902-1987), was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with national
                               intergroup conflict in South Africa and Northern Ireland.
                               In accord with Maslow, Roger also emphasized the need to achieve self-actualization levels. He
                               developed an approach to therapy known as Client-Centered therapy. This is a unique, warm and
                               nondirective way to understanding personality and human relationships.
                               Rogers posits that for one to fulfill her potential, one need to experience Unconditional Positive                                         Regard. This is a non-judgmental acceptance of others. It facilitates the development of security needed for exploration of feelings without the fear of being disapproved of.
Furthermore, Rogers compared the "Real Self" and the “Ideal Self”. The "Real Self” represents aspects of one's true personality and needs. Therefore, it is the basis of the actualizing tendency. On the other hand, the “Ideal Self” represents one's non-realistic, high standard values. Therefore, the 'Ideal Self " is bound to fail and may even result in mental disturbances.

 

Rogers referred to the gap between the Ideal Self –and the Real Self as Incongruity and emphasized the need to minimize this unhealthy gap. Moreover, incongruent people work hard to protect their Ideal Self which is under constant threat.
While the real self-person represents a true: “I am" and is able to lead his life in a genuine way, the ideal self-person is led by the: “I should". Also, Rogers argued that an incongruent individual, one who has big gap between his Real and Ideal Self, tends to be defensive and thus cannot be open to all experiences. This incongruent individual has a high likelihood to deploy healthy defense mechanisms and use distortions and denial instead.
Distortion occurs when the individual perceives a threat to their self-concept. In other words, this individual needs to distort perception to fit the unrealistic, Ideal Self he is clinging to. And since incongruent individual cannot, by virtue, function ideally, she is likely to suffer emotionally.

 

Criticisms of Humanistic Psychology:
Like Psychoanalysis, Humanistic School is critiqued for not being scientific. It is often seen as too subjective, where it is difficult to measure, assess and quantify humanistic phenomena such as Self-Actualization.

This discovery was based on a series of research related to dog's reflexive digestive system (where he proved that these reflexes originate in the cerebral cortex of the brain). Dogs learned that when the sound of a bell was heard, food was coming. Thus, bell and food were learned to be associated. This set the ground for the study of: Learning by Association.

 

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